Spring
2000
Once the need for a program of study has been established, research
must be conducted to determine the program
content. Many models exist to
determine program content (Davis & Borgen, 1974; Dick & Carey, 1990;
Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993; Smith & Ragan, 1993; Witkin & Altschuld,
1995). The model used must be
manageable, yet comprehensive enough to ensure optimum
effectiveness. Some models can
be as simple as four steps, such as the model by Saylor and Alexander (Smith
& Ragan, 1993) or as complex as the Davis and Borgen (1994)
model.
Another alternative is the DACUM
model. DACUM is an acronym for
Developing a Curriculum. Many
businesses and industries use the DACUM method to evaluate, enhance, or implement
training programs. The DACUM
assumes that the researcher has access to individuals most knowledgeable
about the job field relative to the program of
study. The DACUM works well
when the training can be measured by performance
assessment. The DACUM also requires
a leader who has a thorough understanding of the curriculum development
process. Other data gathering
techniques in addition to the DACUM include the mailed Delphi survey, the
group or modified Delphi process, electronic groups, and concept
mapping. The practicality for
use must be determined according to the desired outcomes of the study (Witkin
& Altschuld, 1995).
The nature of this project is more aligned to the Davis-Borgen method
of program development. This
method is of extreme complexity, yet a modified method will suite the needs
of this project.
Competencies
To begin developing a curriculum, the program developer must determine
what are the competencies desired from a graduate of the
program. Some available sources
exist to provide information. Some
sources include job descriptions from jobs in which graduates will be employed
or a list of competencies from a similar program of
study. Other sources include
college handbooks from other institutions, interviews with persons in the
field of work (modified DACUM), occupational digests,
etc. An advisory committee may
also be needed to review the listed
competencies. At this time, one may determine if an existing program
will be appropriate, if the existing program can be modified, or if a completely
new curriculum is desirable. Table
1 shows some sample questions that need to be answered for complete curriculum
design. From these answers,
curriculum elements can be determined.
Concurrent to the data gathering process for program content, data
can also be collected for determining student performance
objectives. For each competency, a measure can be recorded as to how
one would access student learning of the
competency. A list of tasks, conditions, and performance criteria
can be determined.
Data that has been collected must be categorized into logical, teachable
units. The researcher must pay
attention to the facilities and/or equipment required to offer experiences
related to the objective, the knowledge base required for the student to
achieve the objective, and the type of methodology that would best serve
the student (e.g., lecture, discussion, audio-tutorial, lab/practice sessions,
on-the-job training, etc.).
Another consideration to the format of the course will be the time
schedules of the institution (i.e., semester, quarter, mini-course, distance
learning, web-mediated, or any
combination of formats). From
the data gathered, a tentative program of study could be developed as well
as a syllabus for each course outlining the objectives.
Instructional Methodology
Once the student performance objectives have been identified and a
tentative program of study has been developed, instructional methodologies
must be determined to achieve optimum student
success. Many instructional
methodologies exist, yet not all are equally
effective. Each instructional
methodology has advantages and disadvantages and unique
characteristics. A program designer
must take into consideration the abilities of the students being served,
the subject matter being taught, and the type of student performance
desired. A checklist for each
objective outlining the instructional methodology and the media to be used
may prove helpful to the instructor.
See Figure 1 for a sample checklist.
Staff Qualifications
Before a program designer can suggest a new program of study,
consideration must be given to the staff and staff competencies
desired. Before new staff can be hired or current staff is assigned
the courses, consideration must also be given to the number of staff members
needed to support the expected students interested in the
program.
Once again, institutions with a similar program can prove
helpful. Prospective staff should
be evaluated according to work experience, minimum education required, the
major preferred by the hiring institution, the number of years teaching
experience, grade levels taught, subjects taught, licensure, certification,
and personality
characteristics.
To better understand the role of the curriculum specialist, I interviewed
the curriculum specialist of a local public school system.
I first telephoned the specialist
to plan an appropriate time and place for the
interview. Because she was very
busy and had other commitments, we agreed to a phone
interview. After a brief dialogue
to ease the tension of being on record, the interview got
underway. The following summary
details her responses.
Q1:
What is the purpose of a curriculum specialist?
Response:
The specialist began by stating, “a curriculum specialist oversees
and guides the school in making
appropriate”. She then
stopped and asked me to hold for a
second. I immediately thought
that someone had interrupted the
interview. Instead she came
back to the phone and stated that she had retrieved a document she had written
earlier for another report. She
went on to say that, “the curriculum specialist makes curricular decisions
involving materials and strategies…provides essential assistance in
classroom instruction…coordinates textbook selection…and remains
informed on new ideas and
principles.” I found that
last section of the statement about new ideas and principles to be very
interesting coming from someone who had not heard of authentic learning only
two weeks earlier.
Q2: Who
are your customers or clients?
Response:
“Principles, teachers,
students. Yet, I am more closely
responsible to the teachers.”
Q3: How
do you determine the need for a new program of study?
Response:
“Test results indicate weaknesses, or we identify that the Quality
Core Curriculum [QCC] is not being met, or we compare our students to state
and national standards. We look
for deficiencies and address those areas of low
performance. If we want to implement
something totally new, we first have to see how it fits into the
QCC. If it can be tied to the QCC, we have to show how it will
impact the students, show research on why it’s filling a void in the
curriculum and why it’s
important.”
Up until this point,
I had not given much consideration to the difference between the answers
I would have gotten from a post secondary curriculum director as compared
to the curriculum director of a secondary school
system. My experience with both
secondary and post secondary institutions lead me to believe that post secondary
institutions have greater flexibility to create and implement new programs
of study. Further research will
solidify my findings.
Q4: How
do you determine content?
Response:
“In Georgia, we have a QCC guideline for every
course. We would have to show
that a new course meets the objectives and meshes with the
QCC.”
This reminds me of the frustrations I had as a secondary teacher
intern. Everything a teacher
does in the classroom has to support the QCC in
Georgia. Some teachers get locked
into thinking that every QCC objective has to be taught as a unit instead
of interwoven concepts. When
this occurs, students are bombarded with enormous heaps of data, lessons,
and homework resulting in what is sometimes called the “mile-wide,
inch-deep” curriculum.
Q5: How
do you decide to select, adapt, or develop a program?
Response:
“Based on the QCC, we look for something that has been used and
proven to work. We wouldn’t
use something that hasn’t shown positive results somewhere
else.”
I immediately saw the security in this philosophy, but I was disappointed
in the lack of adventurous spirit that so often leads to discovery in educational
pedagogy. According to Green
(1999) an imported program from another system, however successful it was,
is highly unlikely to fit into a different system.
Q6: How
do you determine pedagogy or teaching method to deliver the proposed
program?
Response:
“This would vary from course to
course. In programs like elementary
reading, direct instruction with tight teacher control is
needed. Other courses might
need cooperative learning to meet the objectives of the
course. If critical thinking
skills or other higher order skills are to be taught, then cooperative learning
and experimentation may be needed.
Again, with cooperative learning and experimentation, much depends
on the learning level of the
student.” More interruptions
began to occur, so I thanked the professional for her time in helping me
with my research.
After reflecting
on the interview, I determined that I could almost have written the answers
without even making the call. The
answers came only after a substantial pause as if to collect from memory
the politically correct response.
Much of public education hinges upon state frameworks or curriculum
mandates that may hinder learning instead of guiding curriculum use as
intended.
Educational institutions are constantly faced with the need to adapt
to the changing needs of its customers.
To meet the changing needs, educational institutions must assess which
programs of study need to be deleted, modified, or added to the program
offerings. To effectively design the program, instructional design
coordinators or curriculum specialists must assess the competencies desired
of the program graduates, the resources available to implement the program,
instructional methodologies, and staff
qualifications. Without proper
planning, programs can be implemented which are not effective or not even
needed. The role of the curriculum
specialist is to ensure that the program is implemented to provide needed
programs with consideration to optimum student outcomes.
References
Davis, D., &
Borgen, J. (1974). Planning, implementing, and evaluating career preparation
programs. Bloomington, IL: Illinois Graphics, Inc.
Dick, W., &
Carey L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction. (3rd
ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman & Company.
Green, R. (1999).
Is a school a system? In D. Nalley (Ed.), Natural forces: How to significantly
increase student achievement in the third millenium (p. 81). (Available
from Ronny Green, P.O. Box 919, Monticello, FL 32345)
Ornstein A. C.,
& Hunkins, F. (1993). Curriculum foundations, principles, and
theory. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Smith, P. L., &
Ragan, T. J. (1993). Instructional Design. NY: Macmillan Publishing
Company.
Witkin, B. R., &
Altschuld, J. W. (1995). Planning and conducting needs assessments: A
practical guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications,
Inc.